Geology 319 Structural Geology: The Architecture of Earth’s Continental Crust

Course Information

Introduction

Welcome to Geology 319: Structural Geology: The Architecture of Earth’s Continental Crust. This three-credit, senior-level course is designed to familiarize you with the structure and evolution of Earth’s continental crust. This knowledge is useful for a variety of purposes, from petroleum and mineral exploration, to finding groundwater, to controlling pollution, to deciding where to build homes.

Knowledge about the continental crust comes from several different types of studies, including geophysics, geochemistry, and volcanology. Structural geology incorporates information obtained by other scientific disciplines to study the deformation of rocks. Major deformational features such as faults and folds can then be used to determine the structural framework of the continents.

The main tools of structural geology are simple, low-tech inventions that have been in use for centuries: hammers, compasses, maps, and geometry. A considerable part of this course is devoted to understanding and using the geological compass and geological maps.

The course is delivered in two interdependent parts in which sections often build on previous sections:

• a theory section to study results and synthesis of structural geological studies
• a practice section to learn how to use the tools of structural geology

This Course Information contains information that you will need to complete the course successfully. Please read it carefully, and use it for future reference.

Learning Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this course, you will be able to

• explain where the forces that create geological structures come from and outline the difference between primary and secondary structures.
• describe the process of orogeny and explain the role of orogeny in building Earth’s continental crust.
• use the principles of stratigraphy to interpret geological history from geological cross-sections.
• distinguish between different forms of rock deformation and explain how rock deformation is measured, including how to calculate deformation measures.
• detail brittle, ductile, elastic, inelastic, and rigid responses of rocks as well as concepts of stress and strain, joints and faults, cleavage, foliation and lineation.
• describe the effects of faulting, including earthquakes and changes in topography.
• explain the different conditions under which folds form and differentiate between anticline, syncline, antiform, and synform.
• explain how to use cleavage surfaces to investigate folds and how folds can influence topography.
• describe the different kinds of geological intrusions and the stress regimes in which they can occur.
• explain the tectonic evolution of North America and outline North American orogens.

Course Materials

The course materials for Geology 319: Structural Geology: The Architecture of Earth’s Continental Crust include the items listed below. If any items are missing from your course package, please contact the Course Materials department at Athabasca University as soon as possible: cmat@athabascau.ca

Textbooks

There are two textbooks for this course:

Davis, G. H., Reynolds, S. J., & Kluth, C. F. (2012). Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Marshak, S., & Mitra, G. (1988). Basic Methods of Structural Geology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Both of these resources are among the most widely used structural geology textbooks written in English. Basic Methods of Structural Geology is both a textbook and a professional reference book. These books contain much more information than we can cover in this course, and we will not be using all parts of all chapters. Where readings are assigned, the Study Guide and labs indicate specific points that you should be looking for as you read. Your course materials will refer to these textbooks as Davis, Reynolds, & Kluth and Marshak & Mitra, respectively.

Athabasca University Materials

Geology 319 Study Guide (online)

The Study Guide is your main learning resource for all of the theory portions of the course. It contains seven units with overviews and objectives. Each unit includes a number of lessons with commentary, reading assignments, and study questions. Answers to the study questions can be found at the end of each unit.

Geology 319 Labs (online)

There are seven labs, each set up with an overview, learning objectives, reading assignments, and amplification or clarification of points discussed in the textbooks.

Geology 319 Assignments (online)

There is an assignment for each unit of the course. Each assignment includes a theory portion and a lab (practical application) portion. You will find the assignment instructions and questions in the assignment drop boxes on the course home page. You must submit your assignments online through these drop boxes. If you are unable to submit your assignments online, contact your tutor.

Geology 319 Course Information (online)

This Course Information contains information that you will need to complete the course successfully, including details on student evaluation, the Final Exam, and instructions for successful study.

Maps

A package containing the maps you will need to complete the lab for Unit 2 (Whiterabbit Creek geological map and cross-sections) is included with your course materials.

Other Required Materials

You will need to provide the materials below, yourself; they are not included in your course package:

• a good quality protractor (ideally, a 13-cm navigational protractor)
• a 30-cm metric ruler
• a 12-inch ruler
• a set of seven coloured pencils (not wax crayons), including red, yellow, orange, medium-brown, light medium-blue, violet, and light/medium green
• a good lead pencil of medium hardness (“HB” is ideal), or a mechanical pencil
• good quality 8.5″ × 11″ plain white paper for assignments—about 25 sheets
• 8.5″ × 11″ sheets of tracing paper (vellum drafting paper is preferable, but onion-skin will do—about 25 sheets)
• a breakable stick of wood

Useful Supplementary Materials

You may find the following materials useful in your study; however, they are not essential for completing the course.

• a world atlas
• modelling clay (Plasticine or Play-doh)
• a rubber band
• old CDs and a bowl that will hold them
• a magazine with glossy pages

Course Outline

Geology 319: Structural Geology: The Architecture of Earth’s Continental Crust comprises the following units.

Study Guide

Unit 1: An Introduction to Earth’s Ever-Changing Crust
Unit 2: Basic Techniques for Interrogating the Rock Record
Unit 3: Stress, Strain, and Deformation
Unit 4: Faults
Unit 5: Folds: Waves of Solid Rock
Unit 6: Nonorogenic Structures
Unit 7: Case Study of the North American Cordillera

Labs

Lab Unit 1: Using Geological Maps: Part 1
Lab Unit 2: Using Geological Maps: Part 2
Lab Unit 3: The Stereonet: A Three-Dimensional Graphical Calculator
Lab Unit 4: Solving Problems of Structural Geometry
Lab Unit 5: Displacement on Faults
Lab Unit 6: Fold Orientation: Structural Clues
Lab Unit 7: Introduction to the Geological Compass

Study Plan

Learning at a distance requires a considerable degree of self-discipline, attention to detail, and a systematic approach to studying. To master the material in this course, you should expect to spend an average of six to eight hours per week over six months. These hours are based on the minimum time expected for you to master the material covered. This includes memorizing the facts and learning concepts and procedures—not just developing a vague sense of familiarity with them. You should also allow for time to review and study for the Final Examination. We recommend a regular schedule of review as follows:

• Every third week, review the previously completed theory units.
• During the first or second week of each three-week review cycle, review the previously completed lab units.
• Upon return of your graded assignments, carefully review your tutor’s comments and any new explanatory material provided (especially for the lab sections of the assignments).

Unit Study Plan

The following suggestions will help you work efficiently through each unit.

1. Read the unit learning objectives, which set out what you are expected to know or to be able to do when you have completed the unit.
2. Skim the rest of the unit material to get a general understanding of the structure of the unit and to introduce yourself to its contents.
3. Read the text of the lab unit and the reading assignments. Make notes, underline important points in your study materials, and write down any questions you may wish to ask your tutor.
4. The abilities to visualize in three dimensions and think in terms of maps are important parts of structural geology. Therefore, much of the instruction and many of the lab exercises are intended to facilitate these skills. This kind of thinking can feel foreign at first and, so, the first two lab units are designed to give you plenty of practice at thinking like a geologist. Often, it is helpful to draw diagrams or sketches—these may be duplicates of figures in the study materials or textbooks, or they may be your own attempts to put words into pictures. [You may send original artwork to your tutor for their comments, if you wish.]
5. Complete the lab (application) portion of the unit assignment, which you can find in the assignment drop boxes. Do not submit this to your tutor until you have also completed the theory portion of the assignment.
6. Read the text of the Study Guide unit and the reading assignments. Make notes, underline important points in your study materials, and write down any questions you may wish to ask your tutor. After each lesson in the Study Guide, complete the study questions and check the answers at the end of the unit. It is recommended that you write down the answers to the study questions, as this will help you to better process the material.

7. Complete the theory portion of the unit assignment, and submit the complete assignment using its drop box on the course home page. If you are unable to submit your assignments online, contact your tutor.

   Be sure to complete all assignments neatly, and present your answers clearly. This is to your advantage, because assignments that are neat and clear are easier for your tutor to follow and to grade accurately. Furthermore, you will benefit from this practice when you use these materials to study for the Final Exam.

8. After you have finished all parts of the unit, review the unit objectives (Study Guide). If you have not achieved mastery of one or more of the objectives, or if you are unable to complete the unit’s assignment to your satisfaction, review the relevant portions of the study materials. If you still have difficulty, contact your tutor. While your tutor will not supply answers for assignments, s/he will help you to understand the necessary background material.

Student Evaluation

Your performance in Geology 319 will be assessed on the assignments and a two-part Final Examination (theory and practical). Instructions for completing the assignments are given in the assignment drop boxes on the course home page.

To receive credit for Geology 319, you must achieve the following:

• score an average of at least 60% on the assignments; and
• score at least 50% on each of the two parts of the Final Examination.

Your course grade will be calculated as follows:

Each unit includes an assignment for credit. Each assignment is worth 6% of the final course grade (theory: 2.5%; lab 3.5%). These assignments are an important part of the course, as they form the backbone of the lab portion.

Overall, the theory and application sections of the course are almost equal. While you will likely spend more time on the lab sections, much of the material here continues from and extends material covered in the theory sections. [Note also the considerable overlap of material in the theory textbook, Davis, Reynolds, & Kluth, and the lab textbook, Marshak & Mitra).

Final Examination

Format

There are two parts to the Final Examination: (a) Part I is theory, based on material presented in the Study Guide and associated readings and exercises; and (b) Part II is application, based on lab material and associated readings and exercises. Hence, the examination is divided into two exams of two hours each.

You may write both parts of the exam on the same day, or you may opt to write the sections on different days. Each part is invigilated and closed-book. The order in which you write the sections (theory then application, or application then theory) is up to you. When you apply to write the Final Examination, the application form will require that you submit a single date for both parts of the exam (i.e., you must apply to write both parts on the same day). If you wish to write the parts on different days, those arrangements can be made with your invigilation centre. You may find that writing the parts back-to-back is assessed a single fee, whereas writing each part on a different day is assessed two exam fees. How such fees (if any) are assessed is at the discretion of the invigilation centre. We recommend that you discuss your options and associated fees with your chosen invigilation centre prior to scheduling your exam session(s). There are no exam fees assessed at AU exam centres (Calgary, Edmonton, Athabasca).

The theory portion of the exam includes short-answer and essay-type questions. The application portion of the exam includes problems similar to those in the lab portions of your assignments.

Consult the section titled “Procedures for Applying for and Writing Examinations” in the online Student Manual for further information.

What to Bring

For the lab exam, please bring your stereonet, pencils, coloured pencils, protractor, scale, tracing paper, and other lab supplies.

Exam Content

You are responsible for all material that is covered in your Study Guide, labs and assignments, unless otherwise indicated. This includes the parts of your textbooks assigned as readings.

Exam Preparation

Be sure that you can meet all of the learning objectives listed at the beginning of each unit of the Study Guide. Many of these objectives can be restated as questions. The study questions and the assignments function as excellent review material for the Final Exam.

You may anticipate possible exam questions such as “Compare and contrast A and B,” “How does C work? or “Define D.” Practice drawing diagrams, or design your own diagrams. Diagrams can be very efficient ways of organizing and summarizing important ideas, and diagrams often make these ideas easier to remember.

Do not settle for a vague feeling that you “know” a particular topic. Feeling familiar with a topic often masquerades as specific knowledge about that topic. Unfortunately, many students discover this on the day of an exam when they try to answer a question they thought they understood, but find themselves at a loss for the details needed to thoroughly address the question.

For the lab exam, work through the sample problems in your textbook and in the labs and re-do your assignments. Pay special attention to trouble spots, and make sure you understand where and why you lost points in certain areas. Practice is key to doing well on the lab exam.

Reading Scientific Papers

Reading scientific papers can often be challenging—even intimidating—if you are new to this style of technical writing. By necessity, the author must distill what may be years of painstaking research into a few pages of text and images. To do this, authors use terminology that may be known to few people outside their discipline. Given that authors must make every word count, readers may find the text to be very information-dense. Good scientific writers do not intentionally make their writing difficult to read, but despite their best efforts, this may nonetheless be the reader’s experience.

Given the challenges of reading scientific papers, you may wonder why anyone other than an expert in the field might bother. There are, however, many good reasons to try. First, the newest and most exciting ideas are published in scientific papers. Some new discoveries may receive coverage by mainstream media, but most do not. It often takes a long time for new ideas to trickle down into textbooks. Therefore, scientific papers are the best place to find out about cutting edge discoveries and research.

Another good reason to read scientific papers is that they preserve the chain of ideas. New research is explained carefully, and arguments are built by meticulously combining new ideas and evidence with older claims. The older claims are referenced to the original author of the idea and the paper the idea appeared in. This allows you to check the claim out for yourself.

Another reason for exploring scientific papers is that they are reviewed critically by other experts in the field by a system called peer review. In this process, competing researchers often evaluate each other’s work. They submit comments to an editor, who then acts as a judge, weighing the arguments for and against publication of the paper. While this system does not work perfectly, it does expose the researcher’s work to its harshest critics and allows the researcher to respond to comments and improve the paper.

Skimming techniques permit researchers to sort through a vast body of available literature by enabling them to decide quickly and effectively which papers are likely to contain the information they need, and then to locate the relevant details. The following pointers will help you skim an article effectively:

• Know in advance what information you are looking for.
• Read the abstract.
• Look at the figures and read the figure captions.
• Scan the subtitles.

Decide what parts of the paper you will read. Is it all useful? Or, are there only certain sections that are useful to you?